dichromate with organic compounds (e.g., molasses) in the presence of sulfuric acid or by the reduction

of dichromate with sulfur dioxide. Lead chromate, commonly used as a pigment, is produced by the

reaction of sodium chromate with lead nitrate or by reaction of lead monoxide with chromic acid solution

(IARC 1990).

In 1997, the major manufacturers of chromium compounds were: (1) chromic(VI) acid, including

chromic(VI) anhydride and chromic(VI) trioxide (total capacity 76,000 metric tons): American Chrome

& Chemicals Inc., Corpus Christi, Texas; Occidental Chemical Corporation Specialty Business Group,

Castle Hayne, North Carolina; (2) chromium(III) sulfate: Blue Grass Chemical Specialties, L.P., New

Albany, Indiana; Johnson Matthey, Inc., Ward Hill, Massachusetts; Wayne Chemical Corp., Amarillo,

Texas, Dakota City, Nebraska, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin; (3) chromium(III) acetate: Blue Grass

Chemical Specialties, L.P., McGean-Rohco, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio; The Shepard Chemical Company,

Cincinnati, Ohio; (4) chromium acetylacetonate: MacKenzie Corporation, Bush, Louisiana; The Shepard

Chemical Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; (5) chromium boride: Cerac Incorporated, Milwaukee, Wisconsin;

Johnson Matthey, Inc., Alfa Aesar, Ward Hill, Massachusetts; (6) chromium(III) chloride: Blue Grass

Chemical Specialties, LP, New Albany, Indiana, McGean-Rohco, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio; (7) chromium

diboride: Johnson Matthey, Inc., Ward Hill, Massachusetts; (8) chromium dioxide: DuPont, DuPont

Diversified Businesses, Newport, Delaware; (9) chromium 2-ethylhexanoate: OM Group, Inc., Franklin,

Pennsylvania, The Shepherd Chemical Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; (10) chromium fluoride: Atotech

CHROMIUM 274

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

Number of

facilities

Range of maximum

amounts on site in

AK 1 0-99999 11

AL 87 1000-999999 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

AR 49 100-999999 1,2,3,4,5,8,9,11,12,13

AZ 31 100-999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,11,12,13

CA 147 0-999999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

CO 33 100-999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,12

CT 66 100-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

DE 6 1000-999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9

FL 45 100-9999999 5,7,8,9,10,11,13

GA 90 0-49999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

HI 2 0-99999 8

IA 55 100-9999999 1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,12,13

ID 6 100000-49999999 1,5,7,9

IL 212 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

IN 199 0-99999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

KS 38 0-999999 2,3,7,8,9,11,12,13

KY 72 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

LA 34 100-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12

MA 79 100-999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

MD 32 100-49999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11

ME 18 1000-999999999 1,3,5,7,8,9,12,13

MI 162 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

MN 49 100-9999999 1,3,5,7,8,9,10,12,13

MO 74 100-9999999 1,2,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

MS 49 1000-999999 1,5,7,8,9,11,12,13

MT 4 10000-99999 7,8,13

ND 5 1000-999999 2,3,9

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4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

Number of

facilities

Range of maximum

amounts on site in

NE 22 1000-999999 1,2,3,5,8,9,11,12,13

NH 20 1000-99999 8,9,11,12

NJ 48 100-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

NM 7 1000-999999 1,2,3,5,6,8,9,12

NV 6 10000-99999 4,8,9,10

NY 94 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

OH 333 0-999999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

OK 67 100-49999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,11,12,13

OR 37 1000-999999 1,2,3,5,8,9,10,12,13

PA 316 0-999999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

PR 4 0-99999 1,5,9,11

RI 14 1000-999999 1,2,3,8,9,10,13

SC 72 0-999999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

SD 8 1000-99999 2,3,8,9

TN 81 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

TX 177 0-99999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

UT 28 0-999999 1,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13

VA 51 0-9999999 1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,13

VT 4 0-999999 3,4,9

WA 39 100-9999999 1,2,3,6,7,8,9,12,13

WI 197 0-9999999 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13

WV 27 100-9999999 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,10,12,13

WY 3 0-99999 1,6,9

Source: TR197 1999

1. Produce

2. Import

3. Onsite use/processing

4. Sale/distribution

5. Byproduct

6. Impurity

7. Reactant

8. Formulation component

9. Article component

10. Repackaging

11. Chemical processing aid

12. Manufacturing aid

13. Ancillary/other uses

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4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

USA Inc., Cleveland, Ohio; (11) chromium hydroxy diacetate: McGean-Rohco, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio;

(12) chromium naphthenate: OM Group, Inc., Franklin, Pennsylvania; (13) chromium nitrate: The Hall

Chemical Co., Arab, Alabama; McGean-Rohco, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio; The Shepard Chemical Company,

Cincinnati, Ohio; (14) chromium octoate: Dixie Chemical Company, Inc., Bayport, Texas; (15) chromium

oxide: American Chrome & Chemicals Inc., Corpus Christi, Texas; Johnson Matthey, Inc., Ward Hill,

Massachusetts; (16) chromium potassium sulfate: McGean-Rohco, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio; and

(17) chromium-silicon monoxide: Cerac Incorporated, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (SRI 1997). Besides these

producers of chromium metal alloys and chromium compounds, Table 4-1 reports the number of facilities

in each state that manufacture and process chromium, the intended use of the products, and the range of

maximum amounts of chromium products that are stored on site. The data reported in Table 4-1 are

derived from the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) of EPA (TRI97 1999). The TRI data should be used

with caution since only certain types of facilities were required to report. Hence, this is not an exhaustive

list.

Chromite ore has not been mined in the United States since 1961 (Stokinger 1981). Today, the United

States receives all chromium ores from other countries. From 1993–1996, chromium contained in

chromite ore and chromium ferroalloys and metal were imported from South Africa (37%), Turkey

(13%), Russia (18%), Kazakstan (8%), Zimbabwe (7%), and other nations totaling 22% (USGS 1998).

According to NTDB (1998), the U.S. domestic exports of chromium trioxide rose from 5,236,260 kg in

1992 to 11,037,984 kg in 1996. The U.S. domestic exports of chromium oxide and hydride rose from

1,657,121 kg in 1992 to 2,127,153 kg in 1996. The U.S. imports of chromium oxide and hydride rose

from 3,570,688 kg in 1992 to a peak of 5,803,207 kg in 1994 before declining to 4,462,076 kg in 1996.

U.S. imports of chromium trioxide rose from 374,269 kg in 1992 to 3,796,267 kg in 1996.

The metallurgical, refractory, and chemical industries are the fundamental users of chromium. In the

metallurgical industry, chromium is used to produce stainless steels, alloy cast irons, nonferrous alloys,

and other miscellaneous materials. Ferrochromiums are the main intermediates used by the metallurgical

industry. Typical weight percent of chromium in stainless steel and chromium alloys ranges from 11.5%

to 30%. In the refractory industry, chromium is a component in chrome and chrome-magnesite,

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4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

magnesite-chrome bricks, and granular chrome-bearing and granular chromite, which are used as linings

for high temperature industrial furnaces. In the chemical industry, chromium is used primarily in

pigments, both chromium(III) and chromium(VI); metal finishing, chromium(VI); leather tanning,

chromium(III); and wood preservatives, chromium(VI). Table 4-2 lists the approximate distribution of

use for chromium chemicals in the major applications in the United States and Western world in

1996 with a comparison to use in the United States for 1951 (Barnhart 1997). Smaller amounts are used

in drilling muds, chemical manufacturing, textiles, toners for copying machines, magnetic tapes, and as

catalysts (CMR 1988; EPA 1984a; IARC 1990; USDI 1988a). In the past, chromium was also used in

cooling towers as a rust and corrosion inhibitor. Chromium alloys are also used in metal joint prostheses

(Sunderman et al. 1989). In 1988, the U.S. chemical and metallurgical industries accounted for 83.9%

and the refractory industry for 16.1% of the total domestic consumption of chromite (USDI 1988a).

Chromium picolinate, a trivalent form of chromium complexed with picolinic acid, is used as a dietary

supplement. It is also claimed to reduce symptoms of type II diabetes and hypoglycemia (Broadhurst et

al. 1997).

Information regarding the disposal of finished products and wastes produced during the manufacturing of

consumable items that contain chromium is limited. In 1987, 25% of the chromium demand in the United

States was supplied by recycled stainless steel scrap. Although a large portion of the chromium wastes

from plating operations is also recovered, large amounts of chromium-containing waste waters from

plating, finishing, and textile industries are discharged into surface waters. A substantial amount of

chromium enters sewage treatment plants from industrial and residential sources (Klein et al. 1974; TRI97

1999). Presently, slag from roasting/leaching of chromite ore is one of the materials excluded from

regulation under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act by the 1980 Bevill Amendment.

However, emission control dust or sludge from ferrochromium and ferrochromium-silicon production is

listed as hazardous waste by EPA (1988b). The processed wastes from several chromium chemical

industries are designated as hazardous wastes as well (EPA 1981), and disposal of process wastes is

regulated by the EPA. Land filling appears to be the most important method for the disposal of chromium

wastes generated by chemical industries. Of the total chromium released in the environment by chemical

(see Section 5.2). It is anticipated that most of this off-site waste will be disposed of in landfills after

proper treatment. It is important to convert chromium wastes into forms of chromium

CHROMIUM 278

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

Use 1996 Western world 1996 United States 1951 United States

Wood preservation 15% 52% 2%

Leather tanning 40% 13% 20%

Metals finishing 17% 13% 25%

Pigments 15% 12% 35%

Refractory 3% 3% 1%

Other 10% 7% 17%

Souce: Barnhart 1997

CHROMIUM 279

4. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL

that have low mobilities in soils and low availabilities to plants and animals before land disposal.

Chromium(III) oxide is one such form. Chromium in chemical industry wastes occurs predominately in

the hexavalent form. The treatment of chromium(VI) waste often involves reduction to chromium(III)

and precipitation as the hydrous oxide with lime or caustic soda. Chromium(III) waste can also be

converted into hydrous oxide or may be incinerated to form the oxide before land disposal. In most cases,

the pretreated sludge containing chromium(III) is disposed of by land burial or ocean dumping. There is

not much known about the disposal method of waste refractory materials used as lining for metallurgical

furnaces or the disposal practices for the finished products containing chromium, such as chromiumcontaining

pigments (Fishbein 1981; Komori et al. 1990a; NRCC 1976; Polprasert and Charnapratheep

1989; USDI 1988b; Westbrook 1979).

Chromium is listed as a toxic substance under Section 313 of the Emergency Planning and Community

Right to Know Act (EPCRA) under Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act

(SARA) (EPA 1995). Disposal of wastes containing chromium is controlled by a number of federal

regulations (see Chapter 7).

CHROMIUM 281